Introduction to Linguistics
The Study of Language
Introduction | What is Linguistics?
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Linguistics is concerned with the nature of language and communication, and with the study of particular languages and dialects. It includes the following subareas / fields of research :
1- Phonology and Phonetics (sounds)
2- Morphology (structure of words)
3- Syntax (structure of sentences)
4- Semantics (meaning)
5- Pragmatics (language in context)
--> All these subareas / fields of research are part of Grammar.
1- Phonology and Phonetics (sounds)
2- Morphology (structure of words)
3- Syntax (structure of sentences)
4- Semantics (meaning)
5- Pragmatics (language in context)
--> All these subareas / fields of research are part of Grammar.
Parts One and Two | What is language?
Language defines human being. Mankind is the only creature in the world to have developed language. We use language to communicate to one another, for amusement, and we use language to think. Language is indeed the basis of human reason, and thinking is a linguistic act. Every individual is able to speak one or several languages. Language is an innate ability that every human being has (except causes of illness and disease). There are no limits of systems (languages) one can learn.
Animals do not have language
Language is a human property. Animals DO NOT have language. They can of course communicate but they do not use language.
They lack the four basic properties of language: Creation, Adaptation, Displacement, Grammar.
Language is a human property. Animals DO NOT have language. They can of course communicate but they do not use language.
They lack the four basic properties of language: Creation, Adaptation, Displacement, Grammar.
Adaptation
We can adapt our speech whether we address children, teachers, friends, parents...
Productivity (Creativity)
Humans are continually creating new expressions by manipulating language to describe new situations, concepts or objects. This property is called "productivity" (or "creativity" or "open-endedness").
[ Productivity = creativity = open-endedness. (ces trois expressions veulent dire la même chose)]
Languages are flexible and evolve through time. We can create new words whenever we need them. (to snapchat, to skype, to google, to facebook message, to text = ce sont tous des verbes). The potential number of utterances in any human language is infinite.
[ Productivity = creativity = open-endedness. (ces trois expressions veulent dire la même chose)]
Languages are flexible and evolve through time. We can create new words whenever we need them. (to snapchat, to skype, to google, to facebook message, to text = ce sont tous des verbes). The potential number of utterances in any human language is infinite.
Grammar
The way we organise / arrange words (or sings) together to create precise meaning.
- We can generate as many sentences as we want. (productivity)
- We can create sentences that we have never heard before. (productivity)
- We can generate as many sentences as we want. (productivity)
- We can create sentences that we have never heard before. (productivity)
Displacement
The ability to talk about things that are not present in time or space. Human beings can refer to past and future time. Displacement allows us to talk about things that are not present in the immediate environment. It also allows us to talk about things whose existence we cannot even be sure of (heaven, hell, angels, fairies).
In contrast, it seems that animal communication is designed for the here and now.
In contrast, it seems that animal communication is designed for the here and now.
Humans are clearly able to reflect on language and its uses.
Exemple : "Could you please use less technical terms when you explain something to us?"
Reflexivity is the property that enables humans to use language to think and talk about language itself and does not appear to be present in any other creature’s communication system.
Exemple : "Could you please use less technical terms when you explain something to us?"
Reflexivity is the property that enables humans to use language to think and talk about language itself and does not appear to be present in any other creature’s communication system.
Humans are continually creating new expressions by manipulating language to describe new situations, concepts or objects.
The communication systems of other creatures are not like that. For example, vervet monkey communication has a fixed set of signals (36 vocal calls). This lack of productivity in animal communication can be descrived in terms of fixed reference. In other words, each signal is fixed and relates to particular situation and/or purpose. Animals cannot produce any new signals to describe novel experiences.
The communication systems of other creatures are not like that. For example, vervet monkey communication has a fixed set of signals (36 vocal calls). This lack of productivity in animal communication can be descrived in terms of fixed reference. In other words, each signal is fixed and relates to particular situation and/or purpose. Animals cannot produce any new signals to describe novel experiences.
Apes and Sign Language
Speaking to BBC News, Prof Graham Turner of Heriot Watt University, said: "Serious efforts to teach apes some signing began in the 1960s with researchers attempting to teach individual signs derived from American Sign Language (ASL). And the apes did learn to use some hand gestures in this way.
"But it is a distortion to imply that Koko or any ape has ever learned to use a natural signed language like a human being [ ... ]
[ ... ] communication in ASL or any such signed language entails acquiring command of a far more complex system of linguistic expression.
[ ... ] 'signing' apes have never proven capable of displaying grammatical competence comparable to human fluency.'
"Although the apes can use two or three signs in a sequence, close inspection of filmed data has repeatedly shown trainers prompting them, and then questionably interpreting separate responses as signed sentences."
Cliquez-ici pour lire l'article au complet.
"But it is a distortion to imply that Koko or any ape has ever learned to use a natural signed language like a human being [ ... ]
[ ... ] communication in ASL or any such signed language entails acquiring command of a far more complex system of linguistic expression.
[ ... ] 'signing' apes have never proven capable of displaying grammatical competence comparable to human fluency.'
"Although the apes can use two or three signs in a sequence, close inspection of filmed data has repeatedly shown trainers prompting them, and then questionably interpreting separate responses as signed sentences."
Cliquez-ici pour lire l'article au complet.
Conclusion PART ONE
- Whenever humans exist, language exists.
- Language is a human property. Animals DO NOT have language. They can of course communicate but they do not use language. They lack the four basic properties of language: Productivity (= creativity, open-endedness), Adaptation, Displacement, Grammar.
- There are no ‘primitive’ languages – all languages are equally complex and equally capable of expressing any idea in the universe. The vocabulary of any language can be expanded to include new words for new concept.
- All languages change and evolve through time.
Part Three | Noam Chomsky and Universal Grammaire
Language is grammar. La grammaire, c'est la construction de la pensée.
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Cliquez sur le bouton bleu ci-dessus en savoir plus et accéder au cours sur LAD
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The Language Acquisition Device, or LAD, is part of Chomsky's acquisition hypothesis. The LAD is a system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in which children learn structures, and the mistakes they make as they learn.
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Part Four | The Languages of The World
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Chapitre 14 issu du livre :A Little Book of Language – 9 mars 2010
Édition en Anglais de David Crystal (Auteur) |
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Enshrined in a language is the whole of a community's history and a large part of its cultural identity. The world is a mosaic of visions. To lose even one piece of this mosaic is a loss for all of us.
David Crystal
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Professor David Crystal is Honorary Professor of Linguistics at the University of Wales, Bangor. He previously held a Chair at the University of Reading for 10 years.
He is widely known for his research in English language studies, encompassing a broad range of fields that includes phonetics, stylistics, the language of the Internet, English language teaching, child language, and application of linguistics to religious, educational, forensic, and clinical contexts. |
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Why can’t we be sure about the number of languages spoken in the world?
It is very/quite difficult to be sure of the number of languages spoken in the world today because Linguists discover new languages all the time. Moreover, some languages are quickly dying out.
What is the difference between a language and a dialect?
Two people with the same language but who speak different dialects can understand each other (most of the time). However, two people speaking different languages cannot understand each other. A dialect is a different way of speaking the same language but with a different accent, grammar, and words.
What is the common ancestor of French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese and Rumanian?
The common ancestor of French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese and Rumanian is Latin.
Where did northern people settled? What was their name and what was their language?
Northern people (who usually came from Southern Scandinavia) settled in Britain and in the north of Europe. Their language was Old Norse.
What is the common ancestor of German, English and the Scandinavian languages?
The common ancestor for German, English and the Scandinavian languages (except Finland) is Old Norse.
What is the big family of language spoken in Europe?
The big family of languages spoken in Europe is called Indo-European.
Who was Sir William Jones? What did he discover and when?
Sir William Jones was an English judge who worked in India. He spoke several languages and he discovered / found out that there were links between those languages. In 1785, he made that discovery and reached the conclusion that those languages must have had a common ancestor: Indo-European.
What are the origins of Indo-European people?
The origins of Indo-European people are still debated today. Most people believe that they hailed from what is today Turkey.
Document complémentaire | The Language Tree
Minna Sundberg’s illustration maps the relationships between Indo-European and Uralic languages
Linguists have o*en used trees and branches as metaphors to explain and map the connec6ons between language groups.
Despite being close geographically, the tree highlights the dis6nct linguis6c origins of Finnish from other languages in Scandinavia. Finnish belongs to the Uralic language family and shares roots with some indigenous tongues in Scandinavia such as Sami.
Despite being close geographically, the tree highlights the dis6nct linguis6c origins of Finnish from other languages in Scandinavia. Finnish belongs to the Uralic language family and shares roots with some indigenous tongues in Scandinavia such as Sami.
The European arm of the tree splits off into Slavic, Romance and Germanic branches. Here you can see the relationship between different Slavic languages.
The size of the leaves on the trees is intended to indicate – roughly – how many people speak each language. It shows the rela6ve size of English as well as its Germanic roots.
The left side of the tree maps out the Indo-Iranian languages. It shows the connections between Hindi and Urdu as well as some regional Indian languages
Source : hKps://www.theguardian.com/educa6on/gallery/2015/jan/23/a-language-family-tree-inpictures
Part Five | The The Differences between Accents and Dialects
Part Six | Foreign Accent Syndrome
Compréhension de l’orale, synthèse et explication du syndrome de l’accent étrange
Synthèse de la vidéo : Foreign Accent Syndrome
This video is a report about an Australian woman who was born in Tasmania. She was involved in a bus crash 8 years ago and when she woke up at the hospital, she had a head injury as well as a broken back and jaw. She realized that she was suffering from a rare condition known as Foreign Accent Syndrome. It consists in speaking with an accent which is different from our native language. Although her mother tongue is English, she developed a French accent. Therefore people consider her as a foreigner, notice her inhabitual accent and they start a conversation with her in French. Unfortunately doctors and psychologists affirm that she may have this new accent for the rest of the life. In the world, only 40 people suffer from this syndrome.
What is Foreign Accent Syndrome?
Foreign Accent Syndrome is speech disorder that causes a sudden change to speech so that a native speaker is perceived to speak with a “foreign” accent. Foreign Accent Syndrome is most often caused by damage to the brain caused by a stroke or traumatic brain injury. In some cases, no clear cause has been identified. Speech may be altered in terms of timing, intonation, and tongue placement, so that is perceived as sounding foreign. Professor Nick Miller from Newcastle University, a specialist in speech disorders, affirms that Foreign Accent Syndrome is where damage to the parts of the brain controlling speech result in a speech impediment [un trouble] which leave the sufferer sounding like someone from abroad. The causes are unknown, and there is no current cure.
Part Seven | Genie Wiley and The Critical Period for Language Acquisition
Exercice de Compréhension écrite. Lire le texte ci-dessous et répondre aux questions.
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1 | Who is Genie Wiley? Is it her real name? Why?
Genie is the pseudonym /ˈsuːdənɪm/ of an American feral child who was born in 1957 in California (United States). She was given this pseudonym /ˈsuːdənɪm/ in order to protect her real identity and privacy.
2 | What happened to her during the first years of her life? Where did she grow up?
She was a victim of severe abuse, neglect, and social isolation. She was brought up [ bring-up = élever] in in social isolation with almost no human contact. She was confined to a small room. As a result, she did not acquire language during her childhood. Indeed, she was not exposed to any significant amount of speech.
3 | What did her mother decide to do on November 4, 1970? What age was Genie?
On November 4th, 1970 her mother decided to leave the house and seek social services.
4 | Who were the two people who looked after her afterwards?
Psychologists, linguists, and other scientists initially focused a great deal of attention on Genie's case.
This team included Susan Curtis (a graduate student in linguistics) and James Kent (a psychologist).
This team included Susan Curtis (a graduate student in linguistics) and James Kent (a psychologist).
5 | Why did Genie's case fascinate psychologists and linguists at the time? What were scientists trying to understand/prove?
Linguists saw Genie as providing an “opportunity” to gain further insight [acquérir une idée, une meilleure connaissance] into the processes controlling language acquisition skills and to test theories and hypotheses identifying critical periods during which humans learn to understand and use language.
6 | Who is Eric Lenneberg? What is his theory about language acquisition?
Eric Lenneberg is a well-known linguist. His theory about language acquisition is that, like many other human behaviours and skills, there is a critical period (a limited span of time) during which an individual is capable of acquiring language. He argued that the critical period for language acquisition lasts [last (verbe) = durer] until the age of 12.
7 | Comment upon the last sentence: “Today Genie is 51. (...) . And again, she is speechless.” What does it show? Can you draw a conclusion?
Although Genie made considerable efforts to learn nonverbal communication and basic social skills, she remained [remain (verbe = rester] unable to fully acquire a first language. This proved that Eric Lenneberg’s theory was right. There is indeed a critical period for language acquisition.
Conclusion | Question de réflexion personnelle en rapport avec le texte.
According to you, what is the difference between language acquisition and language learning?
Vous pouvez répondre en français.
L’acquisition automatique d’une langue à partir de la simple exposition semble disparaître après la puberté. Il convient donc de faire la différence entre le processus d’acquisition et le processus d’apprentissage des langues étrangères. Après un certain âge, qui se situerait autour de la préadolescence, l’apprentissage d’une langue étrangère fait appel à un processus conscient, explicite et à un effort analytique. Cela suppose donc la réflexion chez l’apprenant et la mise en place de savoirs sur la langue cible et sur ses emplois. L’apprentissage d’une langue requiert un effort conscient et laborieux qui s’étale dans la durée. Après 7 ans, les apprenants mettent en place des mécanismes explicites d’apprentissage qui font intervenir une analyse, une conceptualisation et une réflexion consciente sur la langue qu’ils manipulent. Pour l’adolescent et l’adulte, apprendre une langue étrangère implique des réflexions linguistiques, des analyses syntaxiques et des résolutions de problèmes.Les références à des règles constituent, selon de nombreux linguistes, un passage obligé dans l’apprentissage des langues étrangères. Elles permettent de mieux comprendre le fonctionnement et le système de celle-ci.
Une langue n’est pas seulement une science, un art, c’est aussi, c’est surtout une habitude, habitude qu’on acquiert, comme toutes les autres, que par un long entraînement. Il faut donc, par des répétitions fréquentes, rapprochées, accoutumer l’élève à ces sons nouveaux, à leur émission correcte. Il faut qu’il n’ait plus besoin, pour en retrouver la signification, d’un temps, d’une réflexion, d’un effort de mémoire ; mais au contraire, à l’instant même où son oreille est frappée par ces sons, que son esprit perçoive l’idée, saisisse le sens qu’ils portent en eux. (Puren : 09)
[Source] Puren, C. (s.d.). Méthodes d'enseignement, méthodes d'apprentissage et activités métaméthodologiques en classe de langue. Les Langues Modernes, revue de l'APLV (Association Française des Professeurs de Langues Vivantes) Article paru dans le n° 1-1990 des Langues Modernes : 1-11.